1. Genomic instability: DNA damage and mutations accumulate over time, leading to errors in cellular functions and repair mechanisms.
2. Telomere attrition: The protective caps on the ends of chromosomes, called telomeres, shorten with each cell division, and contribute to cellular senescence and aging.
3. Epigenetic alterations: Changes in gene expression and regulation over time can lead to changes in cellular function and aging.
4. Loss of proteostasis: The accumulation of misfolded and damaged proteins, which can lead to cellular dysfunction and disease.
5. Deregulated nutrient sensing: Changes in signaling pathways that regulate cellular metabolism can lead to aging-related diseases such as diabetes and obesity.
6. Mitochondrial dysfunction: Decline in the functioning of mitochondria, the powerhouses of cells, can lead to increased oxidative stress and contribute to aging.
7. Cellular senescence: The accumulation of non-dividing cells that secrete inflammatory molecules and contribute to aging and disease.
8. Stem cell exhaustion: The decline in the functioning of stem cells, which can contribute to decreased tissue regeneration and aging.
9. Altered intercellular communication: Changes in the signaling between cells can lead to inflammation, cellular dysfunction, and disease.
10. Chronic inflammation: A long-lasting and low-grade immune system response to various stimuli, which can contribute to aging and age-related diseases.
11. Dysbiosis: The imbalance in the microbial communities within a specific environment, such as the gut, which can lead to negative health outcomes.
12. Loss of proteostasis: Maintaining proper protein folding and turnover, which can prevent the accumulation of misfolded proteins and age-related diseases.
13. Disabled macro-autophagy: A decrease or impairment in the ability of cells to recycle damaged or unnecessary cellular components, which can lead to cellular dysfunction and aging.
